Health issues other than disease can be linked to diplomatic efforts. "Health Diplomacy" tends to refer to diplomatic efforts to enact international health measures. Some references below reflect this definition. From a disaster diplomacy perspective, examples are sought of where efforts on international health issues led to non-health diplomatic outcomes. Some attempts and possible case studies are included below. Both approaches to health diplomacy are linked and can influence, cause, or catalyse each other.
Aginam, O. 2003. "The Nineteenth Century Colonial Fingerprints on Public Health Diplomacy: A Postcolonial View". Law, Social Justice and Global Development, vol. 1, http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/law/elj/lgd/2003_1/aginam
Barbara, J.S. and G. MacQueen. 2004. "Peace Through Health: Key Concepts". Lancet, vol. 364, 24 July, pp. 384-386.
Cahill, K.M. 1997. "Health and foreign policy: an American view". Annals of Tropical
Medicine and Parasitology, vol. 91, no. 7, pp. 735-41.
From the abstract: "Emphasising health issues can offer an innovative approach to the resolution of apparently intractable problems. Identifying the common concerns, of even the most bitter enemies, can provide an initial basis for dialogue and lead to diplomatic initiatives."
Casscells, S.W. and E. Noji. 2005 (1 December). "Avian Influenza and SARS - Global Challenges for Health Diplomacy". Discussion at Baker Hall, Rice University, Houston, Texas, U.S.A., sponsored by the James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy.
CDC. c. 2000. National Program on the Communicable Disease Control. CDC (Center for Disease Control), Taiwan
From this document (Part 4, Four-year outlook): "Internationalization: To aggressively promote an epidemic prevention diplomacy by actively participating global epidemic prevention-related organizations and conferences for securing various global cooperation and exchange venues by which foreign epidemic prevention experience may be absorbed for improving local epidemic prevention efficiency."
CDC. 2005 (27 October). Health Protection Goals. CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention), Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.A.
From this document (p. 3): "Healthy People in a Healthy World--People around the world will live safer, healthier and longer lives through health promotion, health protection, and health diplomacy...“Health Diplomacy”: CDC and the United States Government will be a trusted and effective resource for health development and health protection around the globe (e.g., collaboration on
pandemic influenza planning with World Health Organization and health officials in other governments)."
Chang, C.F. 2002. "Disease and Its Impact on Politics, Diplomacy, and the Military: The Case of Smallpox and the Manchus (1613-1795)". Journal of the History of Medicine, vol. 57, April, pp. 177-197.
Fidler, D.P. 2001. "The globalization of public health: the first
100 years of international health diplomacy". Bulletin of the World Health Organization, vol. 79, no. 9, pp. 842-849.
Health as a Bridge for Peace (HBP) run by the World Health Organization (WHO). The programme aims "to strengthen the returns of the health sector investments in areas affected by conflict or undergoing a post conflict transition. These returns cover a vast array of objectives going from the reduction of social violence to actual peace making." See also:
Galtung, J. 1997. Health as a Bridge for Peace in the Context of Humanitarian Action in Complex Emergency Situations. Prepared for the Division of Emergency and Humanitarian Action, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
Health of Border Populations run by the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO). A 9 September 2003 press release states:
The Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) has developed special programs for border populations, helping create healthy spaces in poor areas often left behind in of their countries’ social agendas.
"The border populations historically have been the most neglected," said Dr. Mirta Roses Periago, director of PAHO.
While economic problems are being addressed by identifying economic development districts in border areas, border cities are often left behind with respect to health issues. They have less basic infrastructure than other cities and less access to health services.
In some cases, border areas also have higher rates of diseases such as hepatitis A, tuberculosis or diabetes than the national averages.
"These cities form a third space; they have their own identity, apart from the national identity. Even though in many cases there are enormous cultural and language differences, there is a border identity that should be respected. At the same time we can take this opportunity to create healthy spaces and bi-national or tri-national health plans," she said.
[...]
One very good example is the sanitation work carried out in the Zarumillas canal, on the border between Peru and Ecuador, which contributed to peace between the two countries," Roses recalled.
The work is broad. "Previously, the border was considered the gate of entry for diseases, the vulnerable point for health risks. Now, we know that viruses enter through airports," Roses said.
To improve health in border cities, PAHO works on several fronts:
- Reduce stigmatization through joint efforts
- Develop health promotion programs
- Promote the development of service networks
- Achieve continuity and consistency of epidemiological surveillance and treatment in sister cities, especially for communicable diseases as tuberculosis or AIDS
An example of PAHO-supported joint effort was the first Vaccination Week in the Americas last June, when health professionals and communities participated in immunization days along 10 borders in more than 20 cities.
PAHO is also working on new cooperation strategies and public and private partnerships to develop regional capacities and promote healthy spaces on the border between Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador, as well as the borders between Guatemala, Belize and Mexico; between Costa Rica and Nicaragua; and in the border cities of Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay.
Since 1942, with the creation of its U.S.-Mexico Border Field Office in El Paso, Texas, PAHO has been working to improve health conditions in the 10 states that share the border between the United States and Mexico.
Iglehart, J.K. 2004. "Advocating For Medical Diplomacy: A Conversation With Tommy G. Thompson". Health Affairs (Web Exclusive), 4 May, pp. W4-262-W4-268.
Kassalow, J.S. 2001. Why Health is Important to U.S. Foreign Policy. Council on Foreign Relations, 19 April, New York and Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
Kassalow, J.S. and D.M. Fox. 2001. "Making Health a Priority for US Foreign Policy". World Health News, 26 October.
Novotny T.E. 2006. "US Department of Health and Human Services: A Need for Global Health Leadership in Preparedness and Health Diplomacy". American Journal of Public Health, vol. 96, no. 1, pp. 11-13.
Ratzen, S.C. 2005. "Beyond the 2004 Tsunami: Health Diplomacy as a Response". Journal of Health Communication, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 197-198.
Thompson, D. 2005. "China’s Soft Power In Africa: From The “Beijing Consensus” To Health Diplomacy". China Brief, vol. V, issue 21 (13 October), pp. 1-4.
Vass, A. 2001. "Peace Through Health: Medical Students Have a Part to Play". Student BMJ, vol. 9, pp. 444-445.
Whitehead School of Diplomacy's Global Health Initiative exists "to examine global health issues from a foreign policy and national security perspective".