Preface in Kelman and Koukis (2000) (edited from the original with permission)
Do natural disasters induce international cooperation amongst countries that have traditionally been 'enemies'? This notion of Disaster Diplomacy has never been fully addressed despite its potential to significantly impact international affairs.
The occurrence or threat of natural disasters creates opportunities to facilitate better cooperation or relations amongst states in conflict through fostering linkages which otherwise might not have existed. The cooperative spirit generated from common efforts to deal with disasters--through either perceived necessity or choice from the humanitarian imperative--possibly overrides pre-existing prejudices, breaking down barriers which then may never be rebuilt. Even when the initiative derives from only the general populace, it could influence bilateral and multilateral relations in areas such as trade, environmental management, and cultural exchange.
As a result of this process, certain conditions may be created for economic, political, or ideological divides and conflicts to be gradually superseded by cooperative structures and mechanisms. 'Spillover' from merely technical or scientific collaboration or humanitarian assistance to successful diplomatic rapprochement could occur. Alternatively, perhaps nothing except changes at the highest level will ever eradicate deeply entrenched interstate enmity, with the inertia of Disastrous Diplomacy being the usual state of affairs.
This section embraces the challenge of examining which prerequisites and circumstances could yield a successful transformation, due to natural disaster, of international relations by investigating specific case studies covering three natural disasters--earthquakes, drought, and the El Niño phenomenon--on three continents in order to provide a valid empirical basis for hypothesising on the concept of Disaster Diplomacy. These case studies are then analysed in the context of a theoretical model which could assist in identifying when and why Disaster Diplomacy would occur.
Comment on this preface.
"Greek-Turkish Rapprochement: The Impact of 'Disaster Diplomacy'?"
by James Ker-Lindsay in Kelman and Koukis (2000)
"To claim that the earthquakes brought about rapprochement is both factually wrong, and indeed weakens the basis for the process."
Full text (867 kb in PDF).
Abstract
This article challenges the widely held view that the Greek-Turkish rapprochement of 1999 was the direct result of the collaboration following the earthquakes that hit both countries that year. The high-level political and diplomatic efforts which form the basis of the improved relations and which preceded the earthquakes are examined. The article goes on to provide a detailed account of the efforts at governmental and non-governmental levels to mitigate the effects of the disasters and illustrates the impact of the two disastrous events on public perceptions of the ‘enemy’ and on bilateral relations. In this context, the author warns against the simplistic assumption that diplomatic efforts should be causally linked with the occurrence of disasters. Instead, he asserts that disasters may have a multiplying and legitimising effect on diplomatic rapprochement.
For further material, see the Greece/Turkey case study.
Comment on this case study.
"Climate-Related Disaster Diplomacy: A US-Cuban Case Study."
by Michael H. Glantz in Kelman and Koukis (2000)
"A broad-ranging rapprochement is not likely to result from a specific response to a climate-related problem."
Full text (1,021 kb in PDF).
Abstract
This article traces the history of climate-related cooperation between the US and Cuba as a possible example of disaster diplomacy. It identifies and analyses the areas of present interactions and conflicts, as well as potential diplomatically-sanctioned cooperation between the two countries, with particular respect to the ENSO cycle (El Niño-Southern Oscillation cycle, which incorporates El Niño and La Niña), and the extreme meteorological events that it spawns. Currently, US and Cuban government disaster collaboration is limited to the hurricane season and to monitoring and forecasting the development of storms in the tropical Atlantic. Based on careful examination of extensive empirical material, the article concludes that while disaster diplomacy may be successful in some regions, it has little chance of success in the US-Cuban context in the absence of a rapprochement between the leaders of these two political systems.
Michael Glantz presented "Disaster Diplomacy" at the seminar "Hurricanes Through Time: From Pre-Columbian Beliefs in the Caribbean to Modern Scientific Discovery" at the Smithsonian Center for Latino Initiatives on Friday 18 February 2000, held at the S. Dillon Ripley Center (Lecture Hall) at 1100 Jefferson Dr. SW, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., 20560. This seminar was a product of the Smithsonian Center for Latino Initiatives Hurakan Project.
For further material, see the Cuba/USA case study.
Comment on this case study.
"Drought Emergency, Yes...Drought Disaster, No: Southern Africa 1991-93."
by Ailsa Holloway in Kelman and Koukis (2000)
"While diplomatic dividends can indeed flow from disaster relief efforts, in this instance, joint cooperation was only possible once potential military, economic, and other forms of regional confrontation that dominated the 1980s had been controlled."
Full text (1,114 kb in PDF).
Abstract
This article analyses the rapid political change and redefinition of a regional identity in southern Africa in the 1990s in the context of the severe drought which affected these countries 1991-92. As South Africa and its neighbours looked towards the normalisation of relations, concerted, regional, emergency actions prevented the drought conditions from producing a devastating drought disaster. These events not only served as a confidence-building measure demonstrating that southern Africa can coherently function as a region to avert crisis, but also provided the first opportunity for the former adversaries to successfully cooperate on (non-military) security matters. Nonetheless, although this case study illustrates that positive diplomatic initiatives can result from disaster relief efforts, the drought cannot be seen as the main driving force behind the normalisation of relations between South Africa and its neighbours.
Comment on this case study.
"Disaster: Agent of Diplomacy or Change in International Affairs?"
by Louise K. Comfort in Kelman and Koukis (2000)
"Disaster--or threat of disaster--provides opportunities for enhancing collaboration among states, but the properties and mechanisms for adaptation must either exist or be developed for effective results."
Full text (906 kb in PDF).
Abstract
Disaster is presented as a process of transition which changes relations both within and among states engaged in mitigation and response. The article advances the concept of complex adaptive systems (CAS) as an analytical tool that captures the high degrees of complexity and dynamics characteristic of potential or actual disasters. Consequently, the three case studies in this special section of the Cambridge Review of International Affairs which analyse critically the argument for disaster diplomacy as an opportunity to increase cooperation among rival states are re-examined in a CAS framework. Based on the application of CAS to the case studies, the article concludes that creative diplomacy for disaster reduction is most effective at the 'edge of chaos', that narrow region where there is sufficient structure to hold and exchange information, but also sufficient flexibility to adapt new alternatives to meet urgent needs.
Comment on this article.
Mandel (2002)
Mandel, R. 2002. "Security and Natural Disasters". Journal of Conflict Studies, vol. XXXII, Fall 2002, pp. 118-143.
In this article, the author:
- Provides some information on their understanding of "security" and "natural" disaster.
- Suggests two "much too sweeping" hypotheses worthwhile exploring further: (1) Natural disasters tend to strengthen national governmental stability by increasing domestic unity as everyone bands together in the face of common destruction; and (2) Natural disasters tend to strengthen international governmental cooperation by increasing the bonds between donor and recipient countries as recipients feel grateful toward donors and donors feel compassionate toward recipients.
- Uses six case studies to test the hypotheses: (1) Japan's 1995 earthquake; (2) Montserrat's volcanic eruption since 1995; (3) Poland's 1997 flood; (4) Hurricane Mitch in Honduras in 1998; Turkey's earthquake in 1999; and Mozambique's flood in 1999.
- Provides discussion of the security implications based on the case study analysis.
Comment on this article.
Kelman (2003)
Kelman, I. 2003. "Beyond Disaster, Beyond Diplomacy". Chapter 7 in Pelling, Mark (ed.), Natural Disasters and Development in a Globalizing World, Routledge, U.K.
In this chapter:
- Kelman and Koukis (2000) is summarised.
- The case studies India/Pakistan, North Korea are detailed and other case studies are summarised.
- Passive and active Disaster Diplomacy are defined and discussed.
- The definition of 'disaster' is expanded to consider day-to-day development challenges.
- The definition of 'diplomacy' is expanded to consider all international affairs activities.
- The contrast and interchange between local and global issues is discussed in the context of the Disaster Diplomacy expansion.
- Environmental Diplomacy is suggested as an inevitable consequence of the previous discussion.
The conclusion was that disaster management, international development, environmental management, and international affairs strongly intersect and interact, hence all must be considered at all spatial scales to develop appropriate solutions.
Comment on this chapter.
Kelman (2005)
Kelman, I. 2005. "Tsunami Diplomacy: Will the 26 December, 2004 Tsunami Bring Peace to the Affected Countries?". Sociological Research Online, vol. 10, issue 1, http://www.socresonline.org.uk/10/1/kelman.html
Abstract
Disaster diplomacy examines whether or not disasters induce international cooperation amongst enemy countries. The 26 December, 2004 tsunami around the Indian Ocean impacted more than a dozen countries, many with internal or external conflicts, thereby providing an opportunity to explore how the same event affects different countries in different disaster diplomacy contexts. Two groups of case studies are presented: those from which few disaster diplomacy outcomes are likely and those which warrant monitoring and investigation. Indonesian tsunami diplomacy is used as a case study for further discussion, in terms of both American-Indonesian relations and the conflict in Aceh. Further work is suggested in the tsunami's aftermath in order to understand better the disaster diplomacy outcomes which are feasible and why they rarely yield positive, lasting results.
Comment on this paper.
For further material, see the Indian Ocean tsunami 26 December 2004 case study.
Weizhun and Tianshu (2005)
Weizhun, M. and Q. Tianshu. 2005. "Disaster Diplomacy: A New Diplomatic Approach?". Shanghai Institute For International Studies International Review, Spring 2005, pp. 111-124 (in Chinese).
Abstract (translated from Chinese)
Civilization and ingenuity are the inherent demands of diplomacy. As we are in a world where disasters occur frequently, it is on the agenda how to deal with the relations between the state hit by disasters and other states in order to stimulate the efficacy of diplomacy better. Disaster Diplomacy is an optional approach for both the state hit by disasters and others. The practice of Disaster Diplomacy has a great influence and actual values on improving national and international interests. Disaster Diplomacy is flexible and multiform yet uncertain and there are some restrictions in the process of diplomatic practice. Disaster Diplomacy can also promote the Chinese role "as a responsible and powerful country".
Revised and re-published as:
Weizhun, M. and Q. Tianshu. 2005. "Disaster Diplomacy: A New Diplomatic Approach? The Apocalypse of the Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami". World Politics and Economy (Chinese Academy of Social Sciences), vol. 6 (in Chinese).
Abstract (translated from Chinese)
Civilization and ingenuity are the inherent demands of diplomacy. As we are in a world where disasters occur frequently, it is on the agenda how to deal with the relations between the state hit by disasters and other states in order to stimulate the efficacy of diplomacy better. Disaster Diplomacy is an optional approach for both the state hit by disasters and others. The practice of Disaster Diplomacy has a great influence and actual values on improving national and international interests. Disaster Diplomacy is flexible and multiform yet uncertain and there are some restrictions in the process of diplomatic practice. Disaster Diplomacy can also promote the Chinese role "as a responsible and powerful country". We would make an annotation according to the international activities after the Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami.
For further material, see the China/Taiwan case study.
Comment on these papers.
Kelman (2006a)
Kelman, I. 2006. "Acting on Disaster Diplomacy". Journal of International Affairs, vol. 59, no. 2, pp. 215-240.
Abstract
Previous disaster diplomacy literature provides limited discussion regarding how disaster diplomacy might be operationalised; that is, how to turn the knowledge, theory, and experience which exists into action. This paper contributes to filling that gap by identifying pathways of disaster diplomacy which could occur or which could be selected. A set of possibilities is provided as a disaster diplomacy toolkit from which tools could be selected to develop action frameworks that are specific to each situation and to each actor's interests. The toolkit consists of pathways which either promote or inhibit disaster diplomacy.
After past work is summarised, disaster diplomacy theory is elaborated by providing a new typology and then the new theory is placed in the context of two recent case studies: India/Pakistan following the 8 October 2005 earthquake and Eritrea/Ethiopia from 1999 to 2002 during droughts. Next, practical ways of using or not using disaster diplomacy are described by exploring disaster diplomacy failings and how those failings could be overcome or exacerbated by using the disaster diplomacy toolkit. The paper concludes by summarising the limitations and prospects of disaster diplomacy. Overall, disaster diplomacy has a significant impact, but realistic expectations are necessary to understand what this process can and cannot do--and what it should and should not do.
Comment on this paper.
Kelman (2006b)
Kelman, I. 2006. "Island Security and Disaster Diplomacy in the Context of Climate Change". Les Cahiers de la Sécurité, vol. 63, pp. 61-94.
Full text in French (643 kb in PDF).
Full text in English (89 kb in PDF).
With thanks to Stéphane Hallegatte.
Abstract
This paper explores how inter-state relationships could be affected when extreme events exacerbated by climate change cause concerns for island security through potential evacuation. The focus is "disaster diplomacy", how disaster-related activities do and do not bring together enemy states, by examining the influence on inter-state relations of islander evacuation due to climate change. Two main areas are examined. First, possibilities are reviewed for re-creating island communities, either by becoming integrated into another state or by re-creating their island community on existing land or on newly created land. Second, the resulting operational ethics issues are explored, incorporating consequent legal questions. The ethical-legal themes covered relate to the responsibility, funding, decision-making authority, and prioritization of sovereignty for island evacuees.
The results lead to four interlinked conclusions. First, islands can lead to significant inter-state concerns and deserve more prominence than they usually receive. Second, the discussion applies beyond extreme events exacerbated by climate change, suggesting that climate change is only one component within all island security concerns. Third, disaster diplomacy continues to yield mixed results, with disaster-related activities rarely creating new diplomacy, but providing a potential for catalyzing existing diplomatic processes. That potential is not always realized. Finally and overall, climate change compounds already-existing security threats facing islands and forces those threats onto inter-state relations with mainly failures in subsequent disaster diplomacy; however, climate change exacerbated extreme events do not introduce new or unique island challenges.
Comment on this paper.
Kelman et al. (2006)
Kelman, I., M. Davies, T. Mitchell, I. Orr, and B. Conrich. 2006. "Island Disaster Para-diplomacy in the Commonwealth". The Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs, vol. 95, no. 386, pp. 561-574.
Reprinted as I. Kelman, M. Davies, T. Mitchell, I. Orr, and B. Conrich, 2009, "Island Disaster Para-Diplomacy in the Commonwealth", Chapter 6, pp. 73-86 in G. Baldacchino and D. Milne (eds.), The Case for Non-Sovereignty: Lessons from Sub-National Island Jurisdictions, Taylor and Francis, London, U.K.
Abstract
This paper presents a first exploration into disaster paradiplomacy for sub-national island territories, conceptualising the notion and its actual execution. Following a brief theoretical background, an overview of the legal parameters and actual practices is provided by means of case studies in island disaster paradiplomacy drawn from the Commonwealth. De facto instances of island disaster paradiplomacy occur, but opportunities for doing so are often not pursued, even when encouraged by easier logistics or by inadequate assistance from the island’s governing state.
Comment on this paper.
Kelman and Gaillard (2007)
Kelman, I. and J.-C. Gaillard. 2007. "Disaster diplomacy in Aceh". Humanitarian Exchange, No. 37 (March 2007), pp. 37-39.
Full text (77 kb in PDF).
Summary
This paper summarises disaster diplomacy in Aceh after the 26 December 2004 earthquake and tsunami.
For further material, see the Indian Ocean Tsunami 26 December 2004 case study.
Comment on this paper.
Le Billon and Waizenegger (2007)
Le Billon, P. and A. Waizenegger. 2007. "Peace in the Wake of Disaster? Secessionist Conflicts and the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami". Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 411-427.
Abstract
This paper explores the impact of 'natural' disasters on armed conflicts, focusing on the evolution of secessionist conflicts in Aceh and Sri Lanka following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. Most studies suggest that 'natural' disasters exacerbate pre-existing conflicts. Yet whereas conflict did escalate in Sri Lanka within a year of the tsunami, in Aceh hostilities unexpectedly ended within eight months. Drawing on a comparative analytical framework and semi-structured fieldwork interviews in Aceh, the study points to the importance of spatial dimensions in explaining diverging political outcomes in Aceh and Sri Lanka, focusing on the reshaping of governable spaces following the tsunami.
For further material, see the Indian Ocean Tsunami 26 December 2004 case study.
Comment on this paper.
Kelman (2007)
Kelman, I. 2007. "Hurricane Katrina Disaster Diplomacy". Disasters, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 288-309.
Abstract
Hurricane Katrina struck the United States at the end of August 2005. The consequent devastation appeared to be beyond the US government's ability to cope with and aid was offered by several states in varying degrees of conflict with the US. Hurricane Katrina therefore became a potential case study for 'disaster diplomacy', which examines how disaster-related activities do and do not yield diplomatic gains. A review of past disaster diplomacy work is provided. The literature's case studies are then categorised using a new typology: propinquity, aid relationship, level and purpose. Hurricane Katrina and its aftermath are then placed in the context of the US government's foreign policy, the international response to the disaster and the US government's reaction to these responses. The evidence presented is used to discuss the potential implications of Hurricane Katrina disaster diplomacy, indicating that factors other than disaster-related activities generally dominate diplomatic relations and foreign policy.
For further material, see the Hurricane Katrina case study.
Comment on this paper.
Brancati (2007)
Brancati, D. 2007. "Political Aftershocks: The Impact of Earthquakes on Intrastate Conflict". Journal of Conflict Resolution, vol. 51, no. 5, pp. 715-743.
Abstract
Although many scholars, policy makers, and relief organizations suggest that natural disasters bring groups together and dampen conflicts, earthquakes can actually stimulate intrastate conflict by producing scarcities in basic resources, particularly in developing countries where the competition for scarce resources is most intense. Capitalizing on a natural experiment design, this study examines the impact of earthquakes on intrastate conflict through a statistical analysis of 185 countries over the period from 1975 to 2002. The analysis indicates that earthquakes not only increase the likelihood of conflict, but that their effects are greater for higher magnitude earthquakes striking more densely populated areas of countries with lower gross domestic products as well as preexisting conflicts. These results suggest that disaster recovery efforts must pay greater attention to the conflict-producing potential of earthquakes and undertake certain measures, including strengthening security procedures, to prevent this outcome from occurring.
Response to this paper
Ilan Kelman wrote a Letter to the Editor (17 kb in PDF) to the journal. The journal's policy is not to publish Letters to the Editor, but the editor kindly agreed to publish the following:
Kelman, I. 2007. "Letter to the Editor". Journal of Conflict Resolution, vol. 51, no. 6, p. 973, full text (38 kb in PDF) available as per the copyright agreement with the journal.
Comment on this paper.
Gaillard et al. (2008)
Gaillard, J.-C., E. Clavé, and I. Kelman. 2008. "Wave of peace? Tsunami disaster diplomacy in Aceh, Indonesia". Geoforum, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 511-526.
Abstract
This paper uses the disaster diplomacy framework to address the impact of the 26 December 2004 tsunami disaster on the decades-long conflict between the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and the Government of Indonesia. This framework enables the identification of a couple of micro-factors of great importance to secure field momentum for the peace talks. These factors include informal networks being created plus disaster relief and diplomacy occurring at multiple levels through multi-way processes and the position of GAM dedicated to reconstruction activities. This paper further shows that, in the case of Aceh, the disaster had a deep influence on the peace talks between GAM and the Indonesian government and on the eventual implementation of the peace agreement reached. However, the tsunami disaster should not be considered to be the sole vector of peace in Aceh, but only as a powerful catalyst of diplomatic talks since negotiation between both sides were ongoing before the disaster and were favoured by recent changes in the political environment. Twenty-eight months after the tsunami catastrophe, it is actually non-disaster and internal political factors which are likely to have a more significant impact on the long-term resolution of the Aceh conflict. One important outcome is that it appears that the slow, unequal and often poor reconstruction process is not hindering, or even threatening, the peace process because tsunami disaster related factors are less important for peace than non-tsunami disaster related factors, a finding in line with previous disaster diplomacy case studies.
For further material, see the Indian Ocean Tsunami 26 December 2004 case study.
Enia (2008)
Enia, J. 2008. "Peace in its Wake? The 2004 Tsunami and Internal Conflict in Indonesia and Sri Lanka". Journal of Public and International Affairs, vol. 19, spring 2008, pp. 7-27, full text (129 kb in PDF).
Abstract
Almost every recent natural disaster that has occurred within a zone of conflict has been followed by expressions of hope from both diplomats and journalists that the disaster might somehow lead to peace. In order to assess whether the concept of "disaster diplomacy" has any merit, more systematic comparative research is needed, contrasting cases where disaster diplomacy seems to have been present with cases where it has not. As a step in this direction, this article explores the differing outcomes with respect to the separatist conflicts in Indonesia and Sri Lanka that followed the 2004 tsunami. In each of these cases, the tsunami provided an opportunity for separatist groups to supply critical public and private relief goods and thereby send a powerful signal about the functional legitimacy of their respective claims to autonomy. In this way, the tsunami affected the separatists’ relative bargaining strength, creating an atmosphere more inclined toward peace in Indonesia and renewed civil war in Sri Lanka. The differing narratives suggest that the world pay more attention to post-disaster conflict zones given their positive and negative dynamic potential.
For further material, see the Indian Ocean Tsunami 26 December 2004 case study.
Comment on this paper.
Nel and Righarts (2008)
Nel, P. and Righarts, M. 2008. "Natural Disasters and the Risk of Violent Civil Conflict". International Studies Quarterly, vol. 52, pp. 159–185.
Abstract
Does the occurrence of a natural disaster such as an earthquake, volcanic eruption, tsunami, flood, hurricane, epidemic, heat wave, and/or plague increase the risk of violent civil conflict in a society? This study uses available data for 187 political units for the period 1950–2000 to systematically explore this question that has received remarkably little attention in the voluminous literature on civil war. We find that natural disasters significantly increase the risk of violent civil conflict both in the short and medium term, specifically in low- and middle-income countries that have intermediate to high levels of inequality, mixed political regimes, and sluggish economic growth. Rapid-onset disasters related to geology and climate pose the highest overall risk, but different dynamics apply to minor as compared to major conflicts. The findings are robust in terms of the use of different dependent and independent variables, and a variety of model specifications. Given the likelihood that rapid climate change will increase the incidence of some types of natural disasters, more attention should be given to mitigating the social and political risks posed by these cataclysmic events.
Comment on this paper.
Akcinaroglu et al. (2008)
Akcinaroglu, S., J. M. DiCicco, and E. Radziszewski. 2008. Avalanches and Olive Branches: Natural Disasters and Peacemaking between Interstate Rivals. A 2008 update of a paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the International Studies
Association, February 27 - March 3, 2007 in Chicago, Illinois, full text (229 kb in PDF) posted here with the kind permission of Elizabeth Radziszewski.
Abstract
Do natural disasters pacify rival states? If so, how? Natural disasters are hypothesized to serve as catalysts of peacemaking when public support for improved relations is activated by compassion for the rival. Compassion is more likely in the absence of routine, rival-related violence, including communal violence, because the presence of such violence serves only to reinforce fear and intolerance of the rival. When violence is not present and catastrophe strikes, ordinary people may respond with compassion and tolerance toward the rival, creating an impetus for rapprochement. Disaster events, then, are shocks that create opportunities for a warming of relations between rivals, but rapprochement remains elusive unless there is a willingness to make peace – a willingness that can arise only in the absence of violence. Content analysis and time-series analysis are utilized to demonstrate the extent to which natural disasters effect rivalry change in two cases, the India-Pakistan and Greece-Turkey rivalries. Novel data analysis demonstrates support for the disaster-induced rapprochement phenomenon, but only in one of two cases. Comparative case study analysis demonstrates that the presence of violence in the India-Pakistan case helps account for the divergent outcomes.
Comment on this paper.
Gaillard et al. (2009)
Gaillard, J.-C., I. Kelman, and M.F. Orillos. 2009. "US-Philippines Military Relations After the Mt Pinatubo Eruption in 1991: A Disaster Diplomacy Perspective". European Journal of East Asian Studies, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 301-330.
Abstract
This paper explores the impact of the 1991 Mt Pinatubo eruption on the US-Republic of the Philippines military relations through the lens of disaster diplomacy. Disaster diplomacy
focuses on how and why disaster-related activities (e.g. mitigation, prevention and response)
do and do not yield diplomatic gains, looking mainly at disaster-related activities affecting
diplomacy rather than the reverse. Disaster diplomacy 'pathways', identified in previous
studies, help to explain how the Filipino and US governments approached the negotiations
for renewing the lease of the US military facilities in the Philippines in the context of two
bases being damaged by a volcanic eruption. The paper further addresses six underpinning
questions of disaster diplomacy for this case study. These questions assist in answering this
paper's central research question: how much did the 1991 eruption of Mt Pinatubo influence
US-Philippines military cooperation due to the concurrent diplomatic talks between the
two governments regarding the lease renewal for the US bases in the Philippines? The
answer is that disaster-related activities due to the Mt Pinatubo eruption had a short-term
impact on US-Philippines diplomacy. This impact was seen in the context of significant connections already existing, through the long-standing US-Philippines military links.
Over the long-term, non-disaster factors had a more significant impact on US-Philippines
military diplomacy than Mt Pinatubo, adding to the list of case studies for which disaster
diplomacy's impact was limited.
Comment on this paper.
Ganapti et al. (2010)
Ganapti, E., I. Kelman, and T. Koukis. 2010. "Analyzing Greek-Turkish Disaster-Related Cooperation: A Disaster Diplomacy Perspective". Cooperation and Conflict, in press.
Abstract
This paper contributes to the disaster diplomacy literature by examining the conditions under which disasters can lead to long-term disaster-related collaboration (e.g., in disaster response, recovery or risk reduction) both at the governmental and non-governmental levels amongst states in conflict. In particular, the paper focuses on the role of the 1999 earthquakes in enhancing such collaboration between Greece and Turkey over the last decade. While acknowledging the diversity and complexity of disaster diplomacy situations, the paper suggests that disasters can lead to long-term disaster-related cooperation amongst states in conflict when: (1) one party providing disaster relief to another party is followed by a similar reciprocal gesture (i.e. tit-for-tat diplomacy); (2) there is a realization and acceptance that neighbors should come to each other's assistance in times of disasters; and, (3) there is an enabling broader context (e.g., a rapprochement process) conducive to sustaining the long-term cooperation.
Comment on this paper.
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